Learning design in science education: perspectives from designing a graduate-level course in evidence-based teaching of science.

Graduate students intending to pursue an academic career in the sciences have much to gain by learning to teach science but often have limited training opportunities. In response to this need, we designed a one-semester course, Learning Design in Science Education (LDSE), in which students receive formal training in pedagogical theory with role model demonstration of current best practices in active learning. Building from previous descriptions of similar courses, we added a practical experience for the students to utilize their new skills to design and teach a mini science course at the end of the semester. Additionally, students developed a teaching portfolio, complete with a personal teaching statement, syllabus, course materials, and evaluations from peers and faculty. Overall, the course was well received by the students and there are early indications that students benefited from their participation in the course. In this manuscript, we present the design and outcomes of the course, faculty and student perceptions, and thoughts on improvements for future semesters and its potential for use by others.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The need for graduate students and other trainees to learn effective methods for teaching science is greater than ever. In this manuscript, we offer a model course for the training of graduate students in learning theory, curriculum design, and technology use in a biomedical sciences environment.

Effects of Acupuncture, RU-486 on the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis in Chronically Stressed Adult Male Rats.

We have recently reported that pretreatment with electroacupuncture (EA) at stomach meridian point 36 (St36) prevents the chronic cold-stress increase in the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA), an action that may be under central control. Given that treatment for stress-related symptoms usually begins after onset of the stress responses, the objectives of the present study were to determine the efficacy of EA St36 on HPA hormones when EA St36 is given after stress was initiated, if the results are long lasting, and if blocking the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) using RU-486 had the same effects as EA St36. Adult male rats were placed in 4 groups of animals, 3 of which were exposed to cold and 1 of which was a nontreatment control group. After exposure to the cold stress, 2 groups were treated with either EA St36 or sham-EA, repeated over 10 days. The increase in ACTH and corticosterone observed in stress-only rats was prevented in EA St36 animals, and the effects remained intact 4 days after withdrawal of EA but continuation of cold stress. When the GR was blocked with RU-486, the efficacy of EA St36 remained unchanged. GR blockade did significantly elevate ACTH, which is not seen with EA St36, suggesting that EA St36 does act centrally. The elevated HPA hormones in stress-only rats were associated with a significant increase in depressive and anxious behavior; this was not observed in the stressed EA St36 animals. The results indicate that EA specifically at St36 vs sham-EA is effective in treating chronic poststress exposure.

Growth hormone exacerbates diabetic renal damage in male but not female rats.

BACKGROUND: Human and animal studies support the idea that there are sex differences in the development of diabetic renal disease. Our lab and others have determined that in addition to Ang II (through the AT1R), growth hormone (GH) contributes to renal damage in models of renal failure; however, the impact of sex and GH on the mechanisms initiating diabetic renal disease is not known. This study examined the effect of sex and GH on parameters of renal damage in early, uncontrolled streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetes. METHODS: Adult male and female Sprague-Dawley rats were injected with vehicle (control), STZ, or STZ + GH and euthanized after 8 weeks. RESULTS: Mild but significant glomerulosclerosis (GS) and tubulointerstitial fibrosis (TIF) was observed in both kidneys from male and female diabetic rats, with GH significantly increasing GS and TIF by 30% and 25% in male rats, but not in female rats. STZ increased TGF-ß expression in both kidneys from male and female rats; however, while GH had no further effect on TGF-ß protein in diabetic females, GH increased TGF-ß protein in the male rat's kidneys by an additional 30%. This sex-specific increase in renal injury following GH treatment was marked by increased MCP-1 and CD-68+ cell density. STZ also reduced renal MMP-2 and MMP-9 protein expression in both kidneys from male and female rats, but additional decreases were only observed in GH-treated diabetic male rats. The sex differences were independent of AT1R activity. CONCLUSIONS: These studies indicate that GH affects renal injury in diabetes in a sex-specific manner and is associated with an increase in pro-inflammatory mediators.

Acupuncture blocks cold stress-induced increases in the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis in the rat.

Electroacupuncture (EA) is used to treat chronic stress; however, its mechanism(s) of action in allaying stress remains unclear. The interplay of stress hormones of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) and the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is critical in the stress response. Our objective was to determine whether EA at acupoint, stomach 36 (EA St36) is effective in preventing chronic cold stress-induced increased hormone levels in the rat by examining four groups of animals, three of which were exposed to cold and one of which was a non-treatment control group. Before exposure to the cold, two groups were treated with either EA St36, or Sham-EA, before 10 days of cold stress. The EA St36 animals demonstrated a significant decrease in peripheral HP hormones (ACTH and CORT) compared with stress animals (P<0.05). These effects were specific; rats receiving Sham-EA had elevation of these hormones, similar to the stress-only animals. These effects were mirrored centrally in the brain; CRH levels were significantly (P<0.05) reduced in EA St36 animals compared with the other animals. Finally, EA effect on peripheral and adrenal SNS hormones (norepinephrine (NE) and neuropeptide Y (NPY) respectively) was examined, with no significant difference noted in adrenal tyrosine hydroxylase or circulating NE in any of the groups. However, EA St36 was effective in preventing stress-induced elevation is adrenal Npy mRNA. These results indicate that EA St36 blocks the chronic stress-induced elevations in the HPA and the sympathetic NPY pathway, which may be a mechanism for its specific stress-allaying effects.

Multiple choice questions can be designed or revised to challenge learners' critical thinking.

Multiple choice (MC) questions from a graduate physiology course were evaluated by cognitive-psychology (but not physiology) experts, and analyzed statistically, in order to test the independence of content expertise and cognitive complexity ratings of MC items. Integration of higher order thinking into MC exams is important, but widely known to be challenging-perhaps especially when content experts must think like novices. Expertise in the domain (content) may actually impede the creation of higher-complexity items. Three cognitive psychology experts independently rated cognitive complexity for 252 multiple-choice physiology items using a six-level cognitive complexity matrix that was synthesized from the literature. Rasch modeling estimated item difficulties. The complexity ratings and difficulty estimates were then analyzed together to determine the relative contributions (and independence) of complexity and difficulty to the likelihood of correct answers on each item. Cognitive complexity was found to be statistically independent of difficulty estimates for 88 % of items. Using the complexity matrix, modifications were identified to increase some item complexities by one level, without affecting the item's difficulty. Cognitive complexity can effectively be rated by non-content experts. The six-level complexity matrix, if applied by faculty peer groups trained in cognitive complexity and without domain-specific expertise, could lead to improvements in the complexity targeted with item writing and revision. Targeting higher order thinking with MC questions can be achieved without changing item difficulties or other test characteristics, but this may be less likely if the content expert is left to assess items within their domain of expertise.

Acupuncture at ST36 prevents chronic stress-induced increases in neuropeptide Y in rat.

Chronic stress, as seen in post-traumatic stress disorder, can exacerbate existing diseases. Electroacupuncture (EA) has been proposed to treat chronic stress, although information on its efficacy or mechanism(s) of action is limited. While many factors contribute to the chronic stress response, the sympathetic peptide, neuropeptide Y (NPY), has been shown to be elevated in chronic stress and is hypothesized to contribute to the physiological stress response. Our objective was to determine if EA at acupuncture point stomach 36 (ST(36)) is effective in mitigating cold stress-induced increase in NPY in rats. Both pretreatment and concomitant treatment with EA ST(36) effectively suppressed peripheral and central NPY after 14 d of cold stress (P < 0.05). The effect was specific, as NPY in Sham-EA rats was not different than observed in stress-only rats. Additionally, the effect of EA ST(36) was long-lasting, as NPY levels remained suppressed despite early cessation of EA ST(36), while exposure to cold stress was continued. In the paraventricular nucleus (PVN), it was notable that changes in NPY mirrored plasma NPY levels, and that the significant elevation in PVN Y1 receptor observed with stress was also prevented with EA ST(36). The findings indicate that EA ST(36) is effective in preventing one of the sympathetic pathways stimulated during chronic stress, and thus may be a useful adjunct therapy in stress-related disorders.

Renal and cardiac neuropeptide Y and NPY receptors in a rat model of congestive heart failure.

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is coreleased with norepinephrine and stimulates vasoconstriction, vascular and cardiomyocyte hypertrophy via Y1 receptors (R) and angiogenesis via Y2R. Although circulating NPY is elevated in heart failure, NPY's role remains unclear. Activation of the NPY system was determined in Wistar rats with the aortocaval (A-V) fistula model of high-output heart failure. Plasma NPY levels were elevated in A-V fistula animals (115.7 +/- 15.3 vs. 63.1 +/- 17.4 pM in sham, P < 0.04). Animals either compensated [urinary Na(+) excretion returning to normal with moderate disease (COMP)] or remained decompensated with severe cardiac and renal failure (urinary Na(+) excretion <0.5 meq/day), increased heart weight, decreased mean arterial pressure and renal blood flow (RBF), and death within 5-7 days (DECOMP). Cardiac and renal tissue NPY decreased with heart failure, proportionate to the severity of renal complications. Cardiac and renal Y1R mRNA expression also decreased (1.5-fold, P < 0.005) in rats with heart failure. In contrast, Y2R expression increased up to 72-fold in the heart and 5.7-fold in the kidney (P < 0.001) proportionate to severity of heart failure and cardiac hypertrophy. Changes in receptor expression were confirmed since the Y1R agonist, [Leu31, Pro34]-NPY, had no effect on RBF, whereas the Y2R agonist (13-36)-NPY increased RBF to compensate for disease. Thus, in this model of heart failure, cardiac and renal NPY Y1 receptors decrease and Y2 receptors increase, suggesting an increased effect of NPY on the receptors involved in cardiac remodeling and angiogenesis, and highlighting an important regulatory role of NPY in congestive heart failure.

Female protection in progressive renal disease is associated with estradiol attenuation of superoxide production.

BACKGROUND: Several types of renal disease progress at a faster rate in men compared with women, but the reasons for this sex difference are not well understood. Chronic renal disease is associated with elevated levels of toxic reactive oxygen species (ROS). Superoxide, the major ROS in the kidney, is generated by nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase. OBJECTIVE: To determine if female protection from renal disease progression is consistent with 17beta-estradiol (E2) attenuation of superoxide production, this study was conducted to assess superoxide production in the renal cortex of male and female control and renal wrap (RW) rats, as well as in ovariectomized rats treated with vehicle or E2. METHODS: Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into 2 sham operation male (Sham-M) and female (Sham-F) control groups, and 4 RW hypertensive groups: RW-M; RW-F; RW ovariectomized females treated with vehicle (RW-OVX); and RW ovariectomized females treated with E2, supplied as a 0.24 mg/60-day release pellet (RW-OVX+E2). All groups were maintained on a high-sodium (4% NaCl) diet for 6 weeks. RESULTS: Mean (SEM) markers of renal injury and oxidative stress, including urinary protein (mg/24 h: RW-M, 298 [31] vs RW-F, 169 [22]; P < 0.001), microalbuminuria (RW/Sham arbitrary units [AU]/24 h: M, 8.78 [0.58] vs F, 4.31 [1.0]; P < 0.005), and malondialdehyde (nmol/24 h: RW-M, 167 [23] vs RW-F, 117 [8.5]; P < 0.05) levels, as well as mean glomerular volume (microm3 x 10(6): RW-M, 2.25 [0.16] vs RW-F, 1.25 [0.04]; P < 0.001) and the glomerulosclerotic index (AU: RW-M, 2.64 [0.19] vs RW-F, 1.10 [0.09]; P < 0.001) were greater in both control and RW males compared with females in the same treatment groups. Though RW surgery increased mean arterial pressure in both male and female rats, no sex difference was observed. Under these conditions, mean (SEM) renal cortical NADPH oxidase activity was 1.3-fold higher in RW males compared with RW females (relative light units [RLU]/180 sec: RW-M, 4080 [240] vs RW-F, 3200 [260]; P < 0.05). Ovariectomy increased NADPH oxidase activity by 1.4-fold (RLU/180 sec: RW-OVX, 4520 [184]; P < 0.01) under conditions in which the mean glomerular volume and glomerulosclerotic index were both increased by 1.5-fold, whereas E2 replacement (RLU/180 sec: RW-OVX+E2, 2745 [440]) prevented these effects. Furthermore, the effects on NADPH oxidase activity were mirrored by changes in the protein abundance of NADPH oxidase subunit p22P(phox). CONCLUSION: These results suggest that E2 protects the female kidney in part by attenuating injury-induced increases in renal superoxide production.

17beta-estradiol deficiency reduces potassium excretion in an angiotensin type 1 receptor-dependent manner.

This study examined the effects of ovariectomy (OVX) and 17beta-estradiol (E(2)) replacement (OVX + E(2)) on renal function in Sprague-Dawley rats. OVX caused a 40% decrease in the fractional excretion of potassium (FE(K(+))) that was prevented by E(2) replacement [Sham, 24.2 +/- 2.9%; OVX, 14.5 +/- 2.1% (P < 0.05 vs. OVX + E(2)); and OVX + E(2), 26.2 +/- 2.7%; n = 7-11] and that corresponded to significant increases in plasma potassium [(in mmol/l): Sham, 3.15 +/- 0.087; OVX, 3.42 +/- 0.048 (P < 0.05 vs. OVX + E(2)); and OVX + E(2), 3.19 +/- 0.11; n = 7-11]. No effects of OVX were detected on plasma levels of sodium and aldosterone. Angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT(1)R) densities in ovariectomized rats were 1.4-fold and 1.3-fold higher in glomerular [maximum binding capacity (B(max); in fmol/mg protein): Sham, 482 +/- 21; OVX, 666 +/- 20 (P < 0.05 vs. OVX + E(2)); and OVX + E(2), 504 +/- 26; n = 7-11] and proximal tubular [B(max) (in fmol/mg protein): Sham, 721 +/- 16; OVX, 741 +/- 24 (P < 0.05 vs. OVX + E(2)); and OVX + E(2), 569 +/- 23; n = 7-11] membranes compared with E(2) replete animals, respectively. Both the angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor captopril and the AT(1)R antagonist losartan prevented the OVX-induced decrease in the FE(K(+)) and the increase in renal AT(1)R densities, suggesting that E(2) deficiency reduces potassium excretion in an ANG II/AT(1)R-dependent manner. These findings may have implications for renal function in postmenopausal women as well as contribute to the reasons underlying the age-induced increase in susceptibility to hypertension-associated disease in women.

Effect of sex hormones on renal estrogen and angiotensin type 1 receptors in female and male rats.

Although the mechanisms are not understood, evidence suggests that 17beta-estradiol (E2) confers protection from cardiovascular and renal complications in many diseases. We have reported that E2 decreases angiotensin type 1 receptors (AT1Rs) in different tissues and hypothesize that E2 exerts tonic inhibition on AT1Rs, reducing effects of ANG II. This study determined the effects of E2 and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) on cortical estrogen receptors (ERs) and glomerular AT1R binding in rats. Animals underwent sham operation, ovariectomy (Ovx) or orchidectomy (Cas) and were treated (Ovx +/- E2; Cas +/- DHT) for 3 wk. Cortical ERalpha protein was 2.5 times greater, and ERbeta was 80% less in females vs. males (P < 0.01). Glomerular AT1R binding was lower in females than males [4,657 +/- 838 vs. 7,457 +/- 467 counts per minute (cpm), P < 0.01]. Ovx reduced ERalpha protein by 50%, whereas E2 increased ERalpha expression after Ovx. The decrease in cortical ERalpha in Ovx rats was associated with a significant increase in AT1R binding (6,908 +/- 609 cpm), and E2 prevented this increase. There was no change in ERalpha or AT1R binding following Cas +/- DHT (25 mg) treatment, although Cas did elevate cortical ERbeta (P < 0.01). Interestingly, the high dose DHT (200 mg) elevated ERalpha 150% above intact levels and profoundly decreased AT1R binding (1,824 +/- 705 cpm, P < 0.001 vs. intact male). This indicates that under normal conditions, glomerular AT1R binding is significantly greater in male than female animals, which may be important in development of cardiovascular and renal disease in males. Furthermore, E2 regulates ERalpha and is inversely associated with glomerular AT1R binding, supporting our hypothesis that E2 tonically suppresses AT1Rs and suggesting a potential mechanism for the protective effects of estrogen.

Induction of a phosphate appetite in adult male and female rats.

We have reported that dietary inorganic phosphate (Pi) deprivation induces a Pi-seeking behavior in juvenile male rats. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether the Pi appetite is present in adult animals, and if so, whether it is altered during times of increased demand for Pi, such as pregnancy and lactation. Both male and female animals fed a low-phosphate diet (LPD) ingested significantly greater amounts of PiH(2)O daily than their normal phosphate diet (NPD) controls, and per 100 g of body weight (BW), the female animals fed LPD tended to ingest greater amounts of PiH(2)O than male rats fed LPD. Pregnant and lactating rats fed LPD ingested significantly more PiH(2)O than those fed NPD, however, neither group displayed a Pi appetite different than virgin females. However, lactation further reduced Pi levels in plasma and cerebral spinal fluid compared with control values. Despite the additional Pi from the PiH(2)O in the mothers fed LPD, pup birth weight was significantly lower than in NPD litters, and this was exacerbated 9 days after birth. This attenuated BW gain was associated with lower plasma Pi levels in the pups. In conclusion, a mild but consistent Pi-seeking behavior is induced in adult male and female rats after only 2 days of dietary Pi restriction. On a relative basis, the amount of PiH(2)O ingested is greater in female than in male animals, but does not increase further during pregnancy and lactation.

Regulation of renal NaPi-2 expression and tubular phosphate reabsorption by growth hormone in the juvenile rat.

Growth hormone (GH) is an important factor in the developmental adaptation to enhance P(i) reabsorption; however, the nephron sites and mechanisms by which GH regulates renal P(i) uptake remain unclear and are the focus of the present study. Micropuncture experiments were performed after acute thyroparathyroidectomy in the presence and absence of parathyroid hormone (PTH) in adult (14- to 17-wk old), juvenile (4-wk old), and GH-suppressed juvenile male rats. While the phosphaturic effect of PTH was blunted in the juvenile rat compared with the adult, suppression of GH in the juvenile restored fractional P(i) excretion to adult levels. In the presence or absence of PTH, GH suppression in the juvenile rat caused a significant increase in the fractional P(i) delivery to the late proximal convoluted (PCT) and early distal tubule, so that delivery was not different from that in adults. These data were confirmed by P(i) uptake studies into brush-border membrane (BBM) vesicles. Immunofluorescence studies indicate increased BBM type IIa NaP(i) cotransporter (NaPi-2) expression in the juvenile compared with adult rat, and GH suppression reduced NaPi-2 expression to levels observed in the adult. GH replacement in the [N-acetyl-Tyr(1)-d-Arg(2)]-GRF-(1-29)-NH(2)-treated juveniles restored high NaPi-2 expression and P(i) uptake. Together, these novel results demonstrate that the presence of GH in the juvenile animal is crucial for the early developmental upregulation of BBM NaPi-2 and, most importantly, describe the enhanced P(i) reabsorption along the PCT and proximal straight nephron segments in the juvenile rat.

Central control of renal sodium-phosphate (NaPi-2) transporters.

Regulation of phosphate (Pi) reabsorption occurs through the up- and downregulation of the renal type-II sodium Pi cotransporters (NaPi-2). Recently, renal NaPi2-type expression has been identified in areas of the brain. The present study determined whether brain NaPi-2 is regulated by dietary Pi and whether the behavioral and renal adaptations to low-dietary Pi are controlled centrally. NaPi-2-like expression in the third ventricle (3V) and amygdala of juvenile Wistar rats was regulated by dietary Pi, as in the kidneys. When cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Pi concentration was elevated by 3V injections of Pi in rats fed low-Pi diet (LPD), the behavioral and renal adaptations to LPD were abolished. Most importantly, NaPi-2 expression was markedly reduced not only in the brain, but also renal proximal tubules, despite the low plasma Pi milieu. This was confirmed by the significant reduction in the transport maximum for Pi (from 8.1+/-0.2 in LPD + veh 3V to 1.7+/-0.1 micromol Pi/ml glomerular filtration rate in LPD + 3V Pi, P < 0.001). These findings indicate that NaPi-2-like transporters in the brain are regulated by both dietary Pi and CSF Pi concentrations, and most significantly, that the central Pi milieu can regulate renal NaPi-2 expression. We hypothesize that central 3V NaPi-2 transporters may act as Pi sensors and help regulate both brain and whole body Pi homeostasis.

Growth hormone regulation of glomerular AT1 angiotensin receptors in adult uninephrectomized male rats.

Sex differences exist in the mechanisms initiating early compensatory renal growth after unilateral nephrectomy (UNX); remnant kidney growth is growth hormone (GH) independent in adult female rats and GH dependent in adult male rats. The present study determined whether sex differences also exist in angiotensin type 1 receptor (AT1R) regulation during early remnant kidney (REM) growth after UNX, and if so, whether GH modulates AT1R expression after UNX in the male rat. Scatchard analysis of radioligand binding in glomeruli demonstrated that 48 h post-UNX, AT1R density (Bmax) was significantly decreased by 20% in female REM compared with control kidneys. In contrast, male REM glomerular Bmax was significantly increased by 28% compared with control kidneys. Furthermore, GH-suppressed male rats displayed attenuated REM growth, which was associated with a 35% decrease in AT1R Bmax. Losartan treatment also decreased REM AT1R Bmax by 55%. The activity of mRNA binding proteins that bind to the 5' leader sequence of the AT1R was regulated by UNX and GH treatment in an inverse manner to AT1R expression. These findings suggest that in rats 1) there are sex differences in the regulation of glomerular AT1R expression after UNX; 2) the increase in AT1R binding sites in the male REM is regulated by GH and mediates early remnant kidney growth; and 3) AT1R 5' leader sequence mRNA binding proteins play a role in UNX and GH regulation of glomerular AT1Rs in both males and females.